Is religion good or evil? Are religious individuals more righteous and good than others? Or are they instead more likely to commit evil in the interests of their goals? What factors might moderate this relationship?

Religion has historically been one of the most powerful driving forces of human behavior. Instigating deep changes in personal beliefs and actions, there are many who claim that religion has lead them to become good as a result of their faith. However, it is undeniable that many of the greatest acts of violence and evil were committed in the name of religious interests. Baumeister and Vohs (2004) cite Idealism or "doing good by doing bad" as one of the four root causes of evil, and describe how individuals can be motivated by religion to view evil acts as the result of their moral duty or obligation. As Americans it is easy for us to recall the result of fundamentalist religious factions of Al Queda through the terrorist attacks on 9/11, although for many others across the world the equally haunting events of the Crusades and the Holocaust speak the universal potential for evil across faiths.

The intersection between religion and psychology is sometimes an area in which our education falls short. It frequently seems that in an effort to avoid offending others we are unable or unwilling to explore the complicated nature of religious issues in our lives. Thankfully, however, there are numerous researchers who are not afraid to take on these issues and thus this page is designed to serve a foundation and a springboard for us to share and consider research from a wide variety of different sources. Regardless of whether we choose to begin with the Christian Association for Psychological Studies (CAPS website-- which is devoted to understanding the relationship between religion, personal well-being, health, and people's actions), or to start to understand opposing viewpoints linking religion to evil (Religion & Evil Psychology Articles), it is essential that we begin to understand the circumstances in which religion can both benefit and harm groups and individuals.

Religion and Well-Being: Are Religious People Really Happier?
Explore some of the connections of the well-documented link between religion and positive well-being. Are all religious people happier and healthier? Does this mean that religion is good? Which religious people are happiest and is it really religion which makes them happy? Can religion sometimes negatively impact personal well-being?

The History of the Psychological Study of Religion

Early 1800s: William James (1842-1910) is one of the first psychologists to comment on the relationship between religion and psychology. In particular, in his book Varieties of Religious Experience he makes distinctions between personal (spirituality-based) and institutional (organized, group, or societally based) religion which continue to be influential in modern psychological research on religion. James also made a clear distinction between what he called "healthy-minded" religion in which individuals use religion as evidence of the good in the world and "sick-souled" religion in which people use religion as a means to cope and find meaning for the good and evil in the world.

Late 1800s: Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was also very influential in the early study of religion and believed that religion rested on the idea of god as a father-figure and as such religious individuals must be fixated in very childish states of development in order to believe in religion. Carl Jung (1875-1961) opposed this idea and believed that religion was a valid pursuit but one which could not be fully understood empirically by psychologists.

Early 1900s: Alfred Adler (1870-1937), believed that the human belief in god reflects the tendency to strive for perfection and superiority and that by developing a close relationship and unity with god people are thus able to find meaning and purpose in life. Adler also believed that religion and the conception of god are strong motivators for human behavior and are relevant to psychology because they represent people’s goals and reasons for action. Gordon Allport (1897-1967) was a psychologist who emphasized the many different uses of religion and the differences between those who were extrinsically motivated to pursue religion (immature: driven by social status & norms) and those who are intrinsically motivated by religion (mature: driven to a genuine, heartfelt devout faith because of their flexible and open approach to religion).

Mid 1900s: Erik Erikson (1902-94) is a well-known identity development psychologist who viewed religion as one of the most significant influences on healthy personality development because of facilitation of the development and virtues of society. Erich Fromm (1900-1980) challenged the Freudian conception of religion by emphasizing not a merely sexual developmental desire but a need for a “stable frame of reference” which religion might provide. However, Fromm hypothesized that the relationship between stability and successful development only holds when religion maintains a sense of free will in the individual as strictly authoritarian conceptions of religion can be detrimental to mental health.

More Recent Work on Religion and Well-Being

1984: St. George and McNamera found that religious involvement is more strongly related to life satisfaction and other aspects of well-being for African Americans than for White Americans.

1985: A review by Donahue finds a link between intrinsic motivation to better health and less prejudice and extrinsic motivation to higher levels of prejudice.

1987: Jarvis & Northcott and Levin & Vanderpool found religious effects various physical health issues including heart disease, hypertension and stroke, overall self-rated-health, mortality risks, and self reported symptoms were also affected

1988: Pargament et al. found three approaches to coping: self-directing, deferring, and collaborative. The self-directing approach is linked to higher self-esteem and greater sense of control, The deferring approach is linked to low self-esteem, lower personal control (more control to chance) and greater intolerance for differences between people. The collaborative approach is tied to greater self-esteem and sense of personal control (less control by chance).

1989: Pollner found that feelings of a closer relationship with the divine are more closely related to well-being for less educated than more educated individuals.

1993: Ryan, Rigby, and King found that people who personally chose their religion (internalization) had less anxiety and depression and higher self-esteem. Those who chose their religion out of fear, guilt, or external pressure (externalization) experienced higher levels of anxiety and depression and had lower self-esteem.

1999: Mahoney et al. found that measures of religiousness related specifically to marital relationships were better predictors of marital well-being than global predictors.

Biggar, Forehand, Devine et al. and Coleman & Holzemer have found that poorer spiritual well-being have been linked to increased risk for depression and other mood disorders. It was also found that, religiosity was not associated with lower levels of depression.

2001: Greenspoon and Saklofske found that a lack of pathology was not necessarily and indicator of well-being. In their study involving children they found that the children low on pathology were also low on well-being. Pargament, Ellison, Tarakeshwar, and Wulff found that positive and negative religious coping serve as predictors for positive and negative depressed affect; these results indicated that religion can be a double edged sword where those that benefit because of increased religiousness also suffer the negative aspects more strongly.

Using the Depression-Happiness Inventory, Lewis and his colleagues found that there was no association between religion and happiness in two separate studies (Lewis et al., 2000, and Lewis, 2002)

2003: Simoni & Ortiz and Coleman have noted a inverse relationship between levels of spiritual well-being and level of depressive symptoms

2004: Yi et al. found that characteristics such as self-worth are associated with depressive symptoms. Greater levels of depressive symptoms associated with religious coping mechanisms and less organized religious activity. Other aspects of religiosity were not significantly related to depressive symptoms.


References:

Allport, G. W. (1950). The individual and his religion, New York: Macmillan.

Biggar H, Forehand R, & Devine D. (1999). Women who are HIV infected: the role of
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Bergin, A. E., Masters, K. S.,&Richards, P. S. (1987). Religiousness and mental health reconsidered: A study of an intrinsically religious sample. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 197–204.

Coleman CL. (2003). Spirituality and sexual orientation: relationship to mental well-being and functional health status. Journal Advanced Nursing, 43, 457–64.

Coleman CL, & Holzemer WL. (1999). Spirituality, psychological well-being, and HIV symptoms for African Americans living with HIV disease. Journal of Assocociated Nurses AIDS Care, 10, 42–50.

Donahue, M. J. (1985). Intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness: Review and meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,48, 400–419.

Ellens, J. H. (2007). The destructive power of religion: Violence in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Westport, CT, US: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group, 97-104.

Ellison, Christopher G. (1999). Introduction to symposium: Religion, health, and well-being. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 692 – 694.

Erikson, E. (1958).Young man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History. New York: W. W. Norton.

Freud, S. (1928). The future of an illusion. New York: Liveright.

Fromm, E. (1950). Psychoanalysis and Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale University.

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Jarvis, G.K., & Northcott, H.C. (1987) Religion and difference in morbidity and mortality. Social Science and Medicine, 25, 813-824.

Jung, C. G. (1992). Psychology and Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.

Koenig, H. G., Pargament, K. I., & Nielsen, J. (1998). Religious coping and health status in medically ill hospitalized older adults. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186, 513–521.

Krause, N., Ellison, C. G., & Wulff, K. M. (1998). Church-based emotional support, negative interaction, and psychological well-being: Findings from a national sample of Presbyterians. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 725–741.

Levin, J.S. and Vanderpool, H.Y. (1987) Is frequent religious attendance really conducive to better healthier: Toward and epidemiology of religion. Social Science and Medicine, 24, 589-600.

Mahoney, A. M., Pargament, K. I., Tarakeshwar, N., & Swank, A. B. (2001). Religion in the home in the 1980’s and 90’s: Meta-analyses and conceptual analyses of links between religion, marriage, and parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 559–596.

Miller, A. (2004) The social psychology of good and evil. Guilford Press: New York, NY.

Pargament, K. I., Kennell, J., Hathaway, W., Grevengoed, N., Newman, J., & Jones, W. (1988). Religion and the problem-solving process: Three styles of coping. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 27, 90–104.

Pargament, K. I., Ellison, C. G., Tarakeshwar, N., & Wulff, K. M. (2001). Religious coping among the religious: The relationship between religious coping and well-being in a national sample of Presbyterian clergy, elders, and members. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40, 497–513.

Pargament, Kenneth I. (2002). The bitter and the sweet: An evaluation of the costs and benefits of religiousness. Psychological Inquiry, 168 – 181.

Pollner,M. (1989). Divine relations, social relations, and well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 92–104.

Ryan, R. M., Rigby, S., & King, K. (1993). Two types of religious internalization and their relations to religious orientations and mental health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 586–596.

Simoni JM, Ortiz MZ.(2003) Mediational models of spirituality and depressive symptomatology among HIV-positive Puerto Rican women. Culture Divers Ethnic Minor Psychology; 9, 3–15.

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Yi, M.S., Mirus, M.M., & Wade, T.J. (2004) Religion, spirituality, and depressive symptoms in patients with HIV/AIDS. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 521-527.