Interrogation has been a widely used method for extracting information. The process involves psychological coercion for the purpose of extracting information, procuring a confession, but especially discerning truth from fabrications. This is typically done through verbal interview and questioning; however, the most extreme forms of interrogation may be referred to as torture and can involve extreme psychological and physical pain inflicted upon the subject or "source."

There has often been debate, yet not enough in public forums, about the ethical nature of interrogation practices. Harsh methodologies, involving intense mental or physical torture have been largely opposed by human rights activists and concerned governments the world over. Restricting the use of such tactics has been outlined in the Geneva Convention, yet many nations and militant groups continue to endorse the use of torture techniques, disregarding these treaties.



History of Extreme Interrogation and Torture

From the French word meaning "to twist," torture is thought to have been used, in one form or another, for a large portion of human history. The earliest recorded uses of torture may be found in ancient Roman history. There are many references, even in the Bible, to whipping and beating in order to acquire a confession or as a way to inflict pain for the purpose of punishment. More often, torture in this period related to punishment, using individuals as an example to the populace to restore order.

Inflicting physical harm, however, was not the only form of torture used. Other forms related to psychological punishment, and solitary confinement is believed to have been first used by the Romans. Unlike the solitary confinement in prisons of today, however, many people were left in confinement indefinitely and forgotten. Incidentally, the French took a similar idea from this concept and created a dungeon, or pit, called an "oubliette." In French, the word means, "forget." This pit was impossible to escape without the aid of rope or a ladder, and was used simply to detain someone without the hope of redemption. It left the source completely at the mercy of the torturer, and the person being held could be detained in this typically dark and wet pit until willing to confess or yield information. Again, many persons left in the pit were left indefinitely until they had expired due to illness, starvation, thirst, or injuries sustained through being dropped into the oubliette.

There were many other devices and devious conceptions that would equal and even surpass the oubliette in the degree of physical and mental torture they produced. This is why governments joined to restrict the option of torture to preserve the human rights and well-being of captured prisoners.

Restrictions Against Torture and the Concept of Modern Interrogation

It was not until 1948 that the UN adopted the "Universal Declaration of Human Rights." This document was the first to restrict the ability of an interrogator to torture sources through a declaration of universal human rights and preservation of dignity. The document clearly states, "No one shall be subject to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment."

Following this declaration, the Third and Fourth Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the United Nations Convention Against Torture of 1984, further defined and restricted torture.

Because there was little to no previous restriction of torture, besides personal refusals to commit acts of torture in a given situation, humane interrogation is considered a modern conception.

Modern Interrogation

Interrogation is typically performed through the interview of a "source" or subject by an interviewer or "interrogator" empowered by an authoritative body (typically an official government).

Depending on the country, authoritative figures may have different rights in performing an interrogation, and methods may vary. British styles of interrogation, known as "Five Techniques," rely heavily on deprivation of food, sleep, and water for the procurement of necessary information.

American styles of interrogation have stemmed somewhat from the British techniques, however, much of today's CIA interrogation techniques are based on techniques developed during the "Cold War," and involve a complete sensory deprivation much like that found in the "oubliette." The training manual used by the CIA is called the Human Resource Exploitation Training Manual. Manuals of this nature are intended to both teach methods, which will preserve the rights of the source, yet yield the most effective results. Coupled with sensory deprivation, much of this method of interrogation involves the "threat" of physical pain rather than performing violent acts. Though these methods are far more humane than the torture methods of the Middle Ages, they are by no means without questionable content. The threat of physical pain itself can cause irreparable psychological damage.

Modern Police manuals of interrogation involve an even greater degree of psychological manipulation and influence. The main tool of manipulation in police interrogations is a kind of hostile negotiation technique. Using a reduced threat of pain compared to military interrogation methods, sources in police interrogations are pressured into confession and divulging details by being threatened with prison time. Subjects may also be given incentives such as the provision of certain benefits, such as reduced sentence time for cooperation.

Effects of Torture

Since the purpose of torture and interrogation is to break the source's will either by psychological or physical means, this often produces lasting effects in the subject. Such effects are post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression. In one study, researchers found conclusively from their sample of 55 victims of torture, that those who undergo torture score considerably higher in PTSD than those participants who had not been tortured (Basoglu, et al. 1994). These long-lasting effects of torture are also vastly different from similar "upheaval" life experiences such as refugee displacement or participating in violent conflict.

Cross-Cultural Differences

An interesting note on the lasting effects of torture, one study found current evaluating instruments for trauma due to torture to be invalid across cultures. Indochinese torture victims were assessed with the DSM-III-R instrument, which measures PTSD. These subjects did not score the typical results for participants having endured torture. It was found that the DSM-III-R instrument was a Western-biased instrument and would reveal false results when administered to a person of a different cultural background (Mollica, et al. 1992).

Sources:

Basoglu, M et al. "Psychological effects of torture: a comparison of tortured with nontortured political activists in Turkey." The American Journal of Psychiatry. 151:76-81. The American Psychiatry Association, 1994.

Mollica, Richard F M.D. et al."Validating a Cross-Cultural Instrument for Measuring Torture, Trauma, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Indochinese Refugees." The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 180(2): 111-116. February 1992. Lippincot Williams & Wilkins, 1992. http://www.jonmd.com/pt/re/jnmd/abstract.00005053-199202000-00008.htm;jsessionid=Jd9GrfqczfVQhrjyJc7G2QhPBXZNbrXGpjhvkgh6dVMB91wj2L2x!-1909737859!181195629!8091!-1

Wikipedia. "Interrogation." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrogation. Revised Nov 1, 2008.

Wikipedia. "US Army and CIA Interrogation Manuals." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Army_and_CIA_interrogation_manuals. Accessed Nov 7, 2008.

The Human Resource Exploitation Training Manual. www.gwu.edu. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB27/02-01.htm. Accessed Nov 7, 2008.